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MER General Forum
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF KHAZARIA
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topic by
kreplach
(311 posts)
NEW YORK,
USA
9/22/2003 (21:56) |
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What sort of Truth is it that crushes the freedom to seek the truth the Khazars?
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF KHAZARIA
by Kevin Alan Brook, Copyright (C) 1996
Latest revision: August 2002.
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'Of all the astonishing experiences of the widely dispersed Jewish people
none was more extraordinary than that concerning the Khazars.'
- Nathan Ausubel, in Pictorial History of the Jewish People (1953)
'The Khazar people were an unusual phenomenon for Medieval times. Surrounded by savage and nomadic tribes, they had all the advantages of the developed countries: structured government, vast and prosperous trading, and a permanent army. At the time, when great fanatism and deep ignorance contested their dominion over Western Europe, the Khazar state was famous for its justice and tolerance. People persecuted for their faiths flocked into Khazaria from everywhere. As a glistening star it shone brightly on the gloomy horizon of Europe, and faded away without leaving any traces of existence.'
- V. V. Grigoriev (1835; from the 1876 book Rossii i Aziya, in the essay 'O dvoystvennosti verkhovnoy vlasti u khazarov', on page 66)
'Though the Jews were everywhere a subject people, and in much of the world persecuted as well, Khazaria was the one place in the medieval world where the Jews actually were their own masters.... To the oppressed Jews of the world, the Khazars were a source of pride and hope, for their existence seemed to prove that God had not completely abandoned His people.'
- Raymond Scheindlin, in The Chronicles of the Jewish People (1996)
The history of Khazaria presents us with a fascinating example of how Jewish life flourished in the Middle Ages. In a time when Jews were persecuted thruout Christian Europe, the kingdom of Khazaria was a beacon of hope. Jews were able to flourish in Khazaria because of the tolerance of the Khazar rulers, who invited Byzantine and Persian Jewish refugees to settle in their country. Due to the influence of these refugees, the Khazars found the Jewish religion to be appealing and adopted Judaism in large numbers.
Most of the available information about the Khazars comes from Arabic, Hebrew, Armenian, Byzantine, and Slavic sources, most of which are reliable. There is also a large quantity of archaeological evidence concerning the Khazars which illuminates multiple aspects of the Khazarian economy (arts and crafts, trade, agriculture, fishing, etc.) as well as burial practices.
Origins. The Khazars were a Turkic1 people who originated in Central Asia. The early Turkic tribes were quite diverse, although it is believed that reddish hair was predominant among them prior to the Mongol conquests. In the beginning, the Khazars believed in Tengri shamanism, spoke a Turkic language, and were nomadic. Later, the Khazars adopted Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, learned Hebrew and Slavic, and became settled in cities and towns thruout the north Caucasus and Ukraine. The Khazars had a great history of ethnic independence extending approximately 800 years from the 5th to the 13th century.
The earliest history of the Khazars in southern Russia, prior to the middle of the 6th century, is hidden in obscurity. From about 550 to 630, the Khazars were part of the Western Turkish Empire, ruled by the Celestial Blue Turks (Kök Turks). When the Western Turkish Empire was broken up as a result of civil wars in the middle of the 7th century, the Khazars successfully asserted their independence. Yet, the Kök kaganate under which they had lived provided the Khazars with their system of government. For example, the Khazars followed the same guidelines as the Kök Turks regarding the succession of kings.
Political power. At its maximum extent, the independent country of Khazaria included the geographic regions of southern Russia, northern Caucasus, eastern Ukraine, Crimea, western Kazakstan, and northwestern Uzbekistan. Other Turkic groups such as the Sabirs and Bulgars came under Khazar jurisdiction during the 7th century. The Khazars forced some of the Bulgars (led by Asparukh) to move to modern-day Bulgaria, while other Bulgars fled to the upper Volga River region where the independent state of Volga Bulgharia was founded. The Khazars had their greatest power over other tribes in the 9th century, controlling eastern Slavs, Magyars, Pechenegs, Burtas, North Caucasian Huns, and other tribes and demanding tribute from them. Because of their jurisdiction over the area, the Caspian Sea was named the 'Khazar Sea', and even today the Azeri, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic languages designate the Caspian by this term (in Turkish, 'Hazar Denizi'; in Arabic, 'Bahr-ul-Khazar'; in Persian, 'Daryaye Khazar').
In addition to their role in indirectly bringing about the creation of the modern Balkan nation of Bulgaria, the Khazars played an even more significant role in European affairs. By acting as a buffer state between the Islamic world and the Christian world, Khazaria prevented Islam from significantly spreading north of the Caucasus Mountains. This was accomplished thru a series of wars known as the Arab-Khazar Wars, which took place in the late 7th and early 8th centuries. The wars established the Caucasus and the city of Derbent as the boundary between the Khazars and the Arabs.
Cities. The first Khazar capital was Balanjar, which is identified with the archaeological site Verkhneye Chir-Yurt. During the 720s, the Khazars transferred their capital to Samandar, a coastal town in the north Caucasus noted for its beautiful gardens and vineyards. In 750, the capital was moved to the city of Itil (Atil) on the edge of the Volga River. In fact, the name 'Itil' also designated the Volga River in the medieval age. Itil would remain the Khazar capital for at least another 200 years. Itil, the administrative center of the Khazar kingdom, was located adjacent to Khazaran, a major trading center. In the early 10th century, Khazaran-Itil's population was composed mostly of Muslims and Jews, but a few Christians lived there also. The capital city had many mosques. The king's palace was located on an island nearby, which was surrounded by a brick wall. The Khazars stayed in their capital during the winter, but they lived in the surrounding steppe in the spring and summer to cultivate their crops.
The great capital city of modern Ukraine, Kiev, was founded by Khazars or Hungarians. Kiev is a Turkic place name (Küi = riverbank + ev = settlement). A community of Jewish Khazars lived in Kiev. Other towns of the Khazars, which also had important Jewish communities, included Cherson, Kerch, Feodosia, Tmutorokan (Phanagoria), Olbia, and Sarkel. The local governors of these cities and districts were usually Jewish. A major brick fortress was built in 834 in Sarkel, along the Don River. It was a cooperative Byzantine-Khazar venture, and Petronas Kamateros, a Greek, served as chief engineer during the construction.
Civilization and trade. The staple foods for the Khazars were rice and fish. Barley, wheat, melons, hemp, and cucumbers were also harvested in Khazaria. There were many orchards and fertile regions around the Volga River, which the Khazars depended upon due to the infrequency of rain. The Khazars hunted foxes, rabbits, and beavers to supply the large demand for furs.
Khazaria was an important trade route connecting Asia and Europe. For example, the 'Silk Road' was an important link between China, Central Asia, and Europe. Among the things traded along the Khazar trade routes were silks, furs, candlewax, honey, jewelry, silverware, coins, and spices. Jewish Radhanite traders of Persia passed thru Itil on their way to western Europe, China, and other locations. The Iranian Sogdians also made use of the Silk Road trade, and their language and runic letters became popular among the Turks. Khazars traded with the people of Khwarizm (northwest Uzbekistan) and Volga Bulgharia and also with port cities in Azerbaijan and Persia.
The Khazars' dual-monarchy was a Turkic system under which the kagan was the supreme king and the bek was the civilian army leader. The kagans were part of the Turkic Asena ruling family that had provided kagans for other Central Asian nations in the early medieval period. The Khazar kagans had relations with the rulers of the Byzantines, Abkhazians, Hungarians, and Armenians. To some extent, the Khazarian kings influenced the religion of the Khazar people, but they tolerated those who had different religions than their own, so that even when these kings adopted Judaism they still let Greek Christians, pagan Slavs, and Muslim Iranians live in their domains. In the capital city, the Khazars established a supreme court composed of 7 members, and every religion was represented on this judicial panel (according to one contemporary Arab chronicle, the Khazars were judged according to the Torah, while the other tribes were judged according to other laws).
Ancient communities of Jews existed in the Crimean Peninsula, a fact proven by much archaeological evidence. It is significant that the Crimea came under the control of the Khazars. The Crimean Jewish communities were later supplemented by refugee Jews fleeing the Mazdaq rebellion in Persia, the persecutions of Byzantine emperors Leo III and Romanus I Lecapenus, and for a variety of other reasons. Jews came to Khazaria from modern-day Uzbekistan, Armenia, Hungary, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and many other places, as documented by al-Masudi, the Schechter Letter, Saadiah Gaon, and other accounts. The Arabic writer Dimashqi wrote that these refugee Jews offered their religion to the Khazar Turks and that the Khazars 'found it better than their own and accepted it'. The Jewish Radhanite traders may have also influenced the conversion. Adopting Judaism was perhaps also a symbol of political independence for Khazaria, holding the balance of power between Muslim Caliphate and the Christian Byzantine Empire.
Under the leadership of kings Bulan and Obadiah, the standard rabbinical form of the Jewish religion spread among the Khazars. Saint Cyril came to Khazaria in 860 in a Byzantine attempt to convert the Khazars to Christianity, but he was unsuccessful, because by that time the Khazars had already adopted a basic level of Judaism. He did, however, convince many of the Slavs to adopt Christianity. King Bulan adopted Judaism in 861, after holding a debate between representatives of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim faiths. The Khazar nobility and many of the common people also became Jews. King Obadiah later established synagogues and Jewish schools in Khazaria. Mishnah, Talmud, and Torah thus became important to Khazars. By the 10th century, the Khazars wrote using Hebrew-Aramaic letters. The major Khazar Jewish documents from that period are in Hebrew. The Ukrainian professor Omeljan Pritsak estimated that there were as many as 30,000 Jews in Khazaria by the 10th century. In 2002, the Swedish numismatist Gert Rispling discovered a Khazar Jewish coin.
In general, the Khazars may be described as a productive and tolerant people, in contact with much of the rest of the world and providing goods and services at home and abroad. Many artifacts from the Khazars, exhibiting their artistic and industrial talents, have survived to the present day.
Decline and fall. During the 10th century, the East Slavs were united under Scandinavian overlordship. A new nation, Kievan Rus, was formed by Prince Oleg. Just as the Khazars had left their mark on other peoples, so too did they influence the Rus. The Rus and the Hungarians both adopted the dual-kingship system of the Khazars. The Rus princes even borrowed the title kagan. Archaeologists recovered a variety of Khazar or Khazar-style objects (including clothing and pottery) from Viking gravesites in Chernigov, Gnezdovo, Kiev, and even Birka (Sweden). The residents of Kievan Rus patterned their legal procedures after the Khazars. In addition, some Khazar words became part of the old East Slavic language: for example, bogatyr ('brave knight') apparently derives from the Khazar word baghatur.
The Rus inherited most of the former Khazar lands in the late 10th century and early 11th century. One of the most devastating defeats came in 965, when Rus Prince Svyatoslav conquered the Khazar fortress of Sarkel. It is believed that he conquered Itil two years later, after which he campaigned in the Balkans. Despite the loss of their nation, the Khazar people did not disappear. Some of them migrated westward into Hungary, Romania, and Poland, mixing with other Jewish communities.
Notes.
1. Many medieval writers attested to the Khazars' Turkic origins including Theophanes, al-Masudi, Rabbi Yehudah ben Barzillai, Martinus Oppaviensis, and the anonymous authors of the Georgian Chronicle and Chinese chronicle T'ang-shu. The Arabic writer al-Masudi in Kitab at-Tanbih wrote: '...the Khazars... are a tribe of the Turks.' (cited in Peter Golden, Khazar Studies, pp. 57-58). T'ang-shu reads: 'K'o-sa [Khazars]... belong to the stock of the Turks.' (cited in Peter Golden, Khazar Studies, p. 58). In his Chronographia, Theophanes wrote: 'During his [Byzantine emperor Heraclius] stay there [in Lazica], he invited the eastern Turks, who are called Chazars, to become his allies.' (cited in Theophanes, The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, translated by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott, 1997, p. 446). The claim that the Khazars were Scythians is completely without merit.
Suggestions for further research. Here are some useful published introductory materials on the Khazars. Some are available from retail bookstores, while others are only available through libraries.
'The Jews of Khazaria' by Kevin Alan Brook (1999). 360 pages. 11 chapters, plus glossary, timeline, bibliography, maps, notes. For more information about this title, including the table of contents, click here.
'Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century' by Norman Golb and Omeljan Pritsak (1982). Russian translation: 'Khazarsko-evreiskie dokumenty X veka' by Golb and Pritsak, with new section by Vladimir Ia. Petrukhin (1997).
'The History of the Jewish Khazars' by Douglas M. Dunlop (1954, 1967)
'The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage' by Arthur Koestler (1976)
'Khazar Studies: An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars' by Peter B. Golden (1980)
Journal article 'Khazaria and Judaism' by Peter B. Golden, in Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, volume 3, 1983, pages 128 to 156.
'The Kuzari: In Defense of the Despised Faith' by Yehudah HaLevi, translated by N. Daniel Korobkin (1998)
'The Emergence of Rus 750-1200' by Jonathan Shepard and Simon Franklin
'A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia - Volume 1: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire' by David Christian
History of Khazaria cannot be distorted or covered up
August 16 2002 at 1:36 AM videowitz (Login videowitz_)
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History of Khazaria cannot be distorted or covered up
August 14 2002 at 1:26 AM videowitz (Login videowitz_)
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An Unusual Association
One of the most ignoble examples of the institutionalized obfuscation of history is that applied to the history of the Khazars by the Byzantines, the Islamic Muhammadans, the pan-Arabists, and the Russian/Stalinist ethnocentrists. Each in turn went to great lengths to expunge whatever records endured the destruction of the Khazar kingdom, and to put a self-serving spin on the surviving elements.
One reason for the extraordinary effort to distort history was the unique relationship that developed between the Khazars and the Jews. The two peoples, whose languages had different roots, one illiterate and the other highly literate, one shamanist and the other monotheistic, one nomadic and the other urban, peacefully merged to share a common destiny. How, indeed, did such a strange union evolve?
The association of the two peoples begins early on. The Jews encountered the Turkic tribes, including the Khazars, in the fifth century BCE in Asia, when Judaic entrepreneurs from Persia passed over the Pamir mountains to blaze a new trade route to Kaifeng, then the capital of China.1 Trading centers sprang up along the trail to serve the passing traders and their heavily laden beasts. The caravansaries became bustling commercial towns in which Jews were prominent. Samarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent, Balkh, Kabul, and other posts along the tortuous route through the central Asian deserts and mountains burgeoned with the passing centuries. The Jews and the Turkic nomads enjoyed a peaceful exchange of goods in these strategic centers throughout that long period.
Many Turkic tribes began to infiltrate into Europe about the fifth century CE. The Magyars moved into what is now Finland; The Avars, Sabirs and Bulgars occupied the Danube basin; the Khazars followed the Kok Turks and spread out along the northern flanks of the Caucacus Mountains, skirting the Aral, Caspian and Black Seas. The tent-dwelling, horse-riding, Khazar herdsmen absorbed some peoples of that hilly area, allied themselves with others, and became transformed into a sedentary nation.
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reply by
kreplach
(312 posts)
NEW YORK,
USA
9/22/2003 (21:56) |
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The Khazars were brought into contact with other communities of Jews already functioning around the Caspian Sea from the time Sidonese Israelites had been deported in 351 BCE. Documentary evidence shows that, likewise, both Karaite and Rabbinate Jews had been in continuous habitation in the Crimea at least as far back as the first century CE.2
The Judaic communities around the Caspian Sea burgeoned with refugees after Roman legions crushed the Bar Khochba revolt and proceeded to destroy the Judaic state in 135 CE. The expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem and the enslavement and exportation of scores of thousands of Jews spurred the exodus to the east.
A few centuries later the Khazars moved into the area and evolved into a vigorous civilization. They became self-sufficient enough to become independent of the sovereignty of the Khagans who ruled over the vast eastern Turkic empire. They conducted affairs under their own Khans, warrior kings who derived from the same roots which produced the much-feared Genghis Khan.3
New waves of Judaic immigrants again joined those established in the region as a result of recurrent problems with the Byzantines, the Persian Sassanians, and finally with the Arabs. Jews crossed the Caucasus and found respite among the Khazars. Jews became the technological and commercial advisors to the Khazar Khans. The Khazars were duly impressed with the technical sagacity and cultural acumen of the Jews. Abba Eban notes that:
'As elsewhere, the Jews engaged in pioneering pursuits. They taught their rather primitive neighbors more advanced ways of cultivating the soil, and means of exchanging goods among themselves and with foreign nations. They taught the art of writing. A tenth century Arab author states, 'The Khazars use the Hebrew script.''4
Evidence of Judaic Presence in Ancient Russia or Scithya
August 16 2002 at 1:38 AM videowitz (Login videowitz_)
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Evidence of Judaic Presence in Ancient Russia or Scithya
One of the arts introduced into the Khazar region was that of glassmaking, a pyrotechnological tour-de-forcedominated by Judaic masters of the art. The trail of the associated Judaic/Khazar traders through central Asia and up the Russian rivers are peculiarly coincident with that of the establishment of glassworks, an art that provides unique evidence of the presence of the Jews.
The earliest glassworks found in the southern foothills of the Caucasus was at Mecheta-Santawbro, which appears to date back to the fourth century, pre-dating the association between the Khazars and the Jews.5 The Mecheta glasshouse seems to have continued operation into the ninth century as the Judaic/Persian traders reached a peak of activity. A significant glass workshop was excavated at Orbeti, dating from the seventh and eighth centuries, the period in which the Khazars converted to Judaism and an exodus from Persia took place. The art thereafter spread with the advancing Khazar/Judaic influence up the Volga, Don, Danube, Dniester and Dniepr rivers into Transylvania (now Hungary, Bulgaria and Rumania) and Silesia (now Poland).
A camel caravan leaving Kaifeng during the Northern Song period (960-1127). The caravan is pictured issuing from the Judaic sector of the city. The Jews traded with Turkic tribes along the route between Kaifeng and the Near East. Among these tribes were the Khazars. The Khazars had already converted to Judaism several centuries before the above-illustrated caravan left Kaifeng.
From an embroidered reproduction of a famous scroll painting, Riverside Scene at Clear and Bright Festival Time, by Zhang Zeduan, 12th century.
Studies of glassware of the eighth through the thirteenth centuries found throughout the vast territory from central Asia through Russia. Poland, and the Danube basin, have shown a correlation of style and composition by which the art can be traced back through time and territory to a single source, the Near-Eastern enclaves where the Jews were carrying on the art. Maria deKowna, of the Polish Academy of Sciences, expressed amazement at the phenomenon of commonality. Comparing the characteristics of glass beads found throughout the territory, the single most prevalent glass artifact, DeKowna demonstrated that they 'exhibit a strong resemblance (form, color, and motif of ornamentation) which cannot but suggest their influx into the territory from one unique center of production.'6
DeKowna's observations are supported by numerous analyses conducted in the past 60 years. The ruins of glassmaking and jewelry shops were found in the artisan's quarters within the confines of a mighty Khazar fortress defending the Khazar city of Sarkal, situated at the lower reaches of the Don. By that time the Khazars had converted to Judaism. The Khazars were persuaded by the unpretentious precepts of Judaic philosophy, the rationality of Judaic religion, and the technological advances wrought by their Judaic advisors. The khan, nobles and many of their subjects demonstrated the impact the Jews had made not only by converting but by bringing Jews into the government. It was a government whose tenets incorporated the democratic, tolerant teachings of the Jews. The composition of the governmental court is given by al-Masudi, a Baghdad-born Arab, who wrote a comprehensive treatise on history and geography about 956:
'The custom in the Khazar capital is to have seven judges. Of these two are for the Muslims, two are for the Khazars, judging according to the Torah (Mosaic Law), two for the Christians, judging according to the Gospel, and one for the Saqualibbah, Rus, and other Pagans.'7
Martin Gilbert noted that the Khazar king, Bulan, converted to Judaism about 700 CE and that a later king, Bulan, strengthened Judaism among the Khazars by inviting rabbis into his kingdom and erecting synagogues. Gilbert extols the composition of the judicial court and adds, 'Religious toleration was maintained for the kingdom's 300 years.'8
The most revealing, and probably the most accurate, description of the process by which the Khazars discarded Shamanism and adopted Judaic religion and law came down to us from Hasdai Ibn Shaprut, a youthful Jew appointed by the caliph of Cordoba to an important administrative post. Hasdai was a linguist, a doctor and a scientist who continued important researches, developing new medicines and rediscovering ancient formulas while carrying on delicate diplomatic assignments for the caliph, Hasdai carried the title nasi (prince) among the Jews, for the caliph had conferred upon him the authority to settle the affairs of the Judaic community as he saw fit.
The caliph also assigned the management of customs to Hasdai, central to the administration of foreign affairs. Hasdai was in touch with the world through this privileged post, and he utilized his position to pursue his passion, which was to to exchange information with Judaic communities of the Diaspora, to assist those in difficulties and to find a refuge for the nation. Hasdai, and beleaguered Jews everywhere, sought desperately to find a realm where the Jews could live and practice their religion in freedom. There were persistent rumors that such a place did indeed exist, stories repeated by merchants bringing back merchandise from Slavic countries. Hasdai pressed them for information, met with Persian emissaries who reported on the kingdom to their north, and interrogated other envoys arriving at the court. He obtained a picture of the Judaic kingdom of the Khazars, despite the barrier of Byzantine belligerence separating the Khazrs from the west.
Hasdai learned that the Khazars had no formal dynasty of kings. A noble who distinguished himself militarily might be chosen to become commander-in-chief, and usually assumed kingship thereafter. Thus a Jewish commander achieved this position. His wife, Sarah, persisted in urging him to practice Judaism in its entirety. He did so, and many of the noblemen followed suit. The neighboring Moslems and Christians, who had been proselyting their causes within the Khazar realm, angrily protested, sending envoys to counteract Judaic influence and win the nation over to their respective religions.
A disputation was arranged. Greek. Muslim and Judaic scholars were heard in turn. Since all based themselves upon the Holy Scriptures of the Judaic Bible, and since the Jews were able to interpret the hole writings far better than their competitors, the nobles accepted Judaism as the true faith. The Khazar Jews who had relinquished the faith in part or in whole returned to it, and became the teachers of the Khazars.
If it were not for the correspondence carried on by Hasdai and by a miserably few references from Arabic and other sources, the very existence of the Khazars would hardly have become known!
This hiatus is all the more remarkable inasmuch as the Khazars endured as a sovereign nation for five centuries. For two of those centuries the Khazars exercised hegemony over, and together with their Judaic allies, brought civilization to a considerable part of southern and western Russia, the Baltic and, along with other Asian peoples, controlled much of the effluvial basin of the Danube. One is left to wonder 'How can the dearth of information about five hundred years of a significant part of Europe be accounted for?'
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2
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reply by
i.hanan
(399 posts)
Ancona,
Italy
9/23/2003 (07:18) |
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Reponse to message 1 written by kreplach
Tell me.! Why do people raise the Jewish Khazarian identity question when they come to discuss Israel, while the Zionatzis hush up all voices talking about it; at times they resort to assassinations ???? What is going on ?
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3
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reply by
kreplach
(327 posts)
NEW YORK,
USA
9/23/2003 (10:05) |
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Reponse to message 2 written by i.hanan
Ask I. Hanan!
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4
5
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reply by
i.hanan
(407 posts)
Ancona,
Italy
9/23/2003 (15:02) |
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Reponse to message 3 written by kreplach
You really dont know.??
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reply by
kreplach
(342 posts)
NEW YORK,
USA
9/23/2003 (20:57) |
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Reponse to message 3 written by kreplach
Refering to I. Hanan:
I. Hanan and other venomuoes anti-semites claim that Jews don't belong in Israel since they aren't semitic but khazar. What they ignore is that Jews are already a mongrel people with genes from interbreeding with local populations from Spain to Algeria to Sweden to Syria to Uzbeckistan! They may have Khazar blood, but hey have semitic ancestry. Anyway you don't need a DNA to settle anywhere..unless the Arabs want to return to Arabia!!
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6
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reply by
i.hanan
(414 posts)
Ancona,
Italy
9/23/2003 (24:59) |
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Reponse to message 5 written by kreplach
Kreplach, that is a self defeating logic.
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